Eric Schulman
Alexandria, Virginia
1. Introduction
In the classic work The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions (Kuhn
1962), Thomas S. Kuhn describes scientific
research as "a strenuous
and devoted attempt to force nature into the conceptual boxes supplied
by
professional education." He points out that in some cases research
results can change the basic tenets of current scientific
practice, a process
known as "paradigm shift," but that scientists are usually very
reluctant
to change their ideas about how the universe works.
The history (Schulman 1999)
of paradigm shifts in
astronomy
include the overthrow of Newton's classical theory of gravity (Einstein
1916),
the discovery of the expansion of the universe (Hubble 1929),
and the
realization
that there aren't enough jobs in academia (Schulman
2001). Such major
paradigm
shifts may occur only once in an academic career, making them difficult
to
study.
It is possible, however, to gain insight into how
science
works by looking at minor paradigm shifts. Unlike major paradigm
shifts,
in which the majority of the scientific community is forced to modify
its
assumptions, minor paradigm shifts result in only a few people changing
their
assumptions.
In this paper we look at the mental processes of a
Ph.D.
astronomer undergoing a minor paradigm shift. Such mental processes are
by
nature private, and it is therefore important to hide the astronomer's
identity
by referring to him/her by initials only.
2. Observations and Results
We studied the paradigm shift that occurred when a
Ph.D.
astronomer, ERS, flew on business from Virginia to Alabama. Below we
list
a number of observations that ERS made, as well as the explanations of
these
observations under both the new and the old paradigms.
Observation: The clock in ERS's rental car says that it is 10:45 am, but ERS's watch says that it is 11:45 am.
New Paradigm Explanation: Alabama is on Central U.S. time (GMT -5 hours), not Eastern U.S. time (GMT -4 hours), so ERS's watch should be set back 1 hour.
Old Paradigm Explanation: The rental car clock was not set
forward for daylight savings time (five months before), and should
therefore be set
forward an hour.
Observation: When ERS arrives at the meeting he/she will be attending, the computers are not set up yet, even though ERS's watch indicates that it is 12:45 pm and the meeting is supposed to start at 1 pm.
New Paradigm Explanation: Alabama is on Central U.S. time (GMT -5 hours), not Eastern U.S. time (GMT -4 hours), so ERS's watch should be set back 1 hour.
Old Paradigm Explanation: The computer support staff at the
meeting venue are disorganized.
Observation: According to ERS's watch, half the meeting participants arrive at about 1:30 pm and the other half arrive at around 2 pm for the 1 pm meeting.
New Paradigm Explanation: Alabama is on Central U.S. time (GMT -5 hours), not Eastern U.S. time (GMT -4 hours), so ERS's watch should be set back 1 hour.
Old Paradigm Explanation: The other meeting participants are
inconsiderate.
Observation: It is announced that meeting participants can receive FAXes at the meeting venue between 8 am and 5 pm Central Daylight Time.
New Paradigm Explanation: Alabama is on Central U.S. time (GMT -5 hours), not Eastern U.S. time (GMT -4 hours), so ERS's watch should be set back 1 hour.
Old Paradigm Explanation: The meeting is being held at a a
company whose headquarters are in a different state and company policy
requires that
all sites operate on the headquarters time zone rather than on the
local
time zone.
Observation: Although ERS's watch indicates that it is 8:30 pm, the cable preview channel claims that it is 7:30 pm.
New Paradigm Explanation: Alabama is on Central U.S. time (GMT -5 hours), not Eastern U.S. time (GMT -4 hours), so ERS's watch should be set back 1 hour.
Old Paradigm Explanation: Uh-oh...
3. Conclusions
Although the minor paradigm shift did not affect any
of
ERS's fundamental assumptions about the nature of the universe, it
still
required five observations that conflicted with the old paradigm before
ERS
was convinced that a new paradigm was needed. This is indicative of the
difficulty
that new paradigms usually have in being accepted.
Because many scientists are extremely reluctant to
change
their fundamental assumptions about the Universe, major paradigm shifts
are
often delayed until the older generation of scientists dies. It is
customary
to refer to scientists who adhere to the old paradigm as "dinosaurs."
Note
that scientists with new-fangled ideas that conflict with the correct
paradigm
should of course be referred to as "crackpots."
References